高中英语新北师大版语法总结（必修一 —必修三）

高中英语语法总结
必修一
一、present simple and present continuous 一般现在是和现在进行时
1，present simple: 反复进行的，经常性的动作（惯例习惯）
Eg, He watches soap operas.
及状态 I live in Budapest.
一般现在时常和下列时间状语连用：always, usually, from, time to time, twice a week, rarely, seldom, once a month, never.
2,现在进行时：说话时正在进行的动作（现在，此刻）
一定时间段内经常进行的动作
和现在进行时连用的时间状语有just, now, at the moment, at present.
二、future：arrangements and intentions 将来的安排和打算
1、be going to 表示打算要做的事情。
2、现在进行时表示已经确定或安排好事情。
Eg, I’m getting married in June.
3、一般现在是表示不可改变的官方活动或时间表
The summer term begins on the 15th of February.
三、past simple and past continues
1,psat simple ：一般过去时，表示过去完成的动作或过去的情境和习惯。
Eg: She climb the stairs and went to her room.
用一般过去时要在规则动词词尾加-ed，或用不规则动词的过去式，一般过去式的疑问句和否定句用did 和didn’t 加动词原形。
2、past continuous过去进行时：过去某段时间正在进行的动作形成某些事件发生的情境动作。
Eg, It was raining during the whole match.
当过去进行时和一般过去时出现在同一个句子中时，过去进行时描述故事发生的背景，儿一般过去时则报道该事件。
Eg， We driving along a country lane when, suddenly a car drove past us.
Form: 过去进行时的结构是：主语+was /were +动词-ing形式。
Eg， The driver was sitting behind the wheel.
四、present perfect and past simple。现在完成时和一般过去式，现在完成时表示发生在过去的事情对现在依然有明显的影响
发生在过去的动作但是不知道动作发生的时间或对动作发生的确切时间不感兴趣。
现在完成时经常和下列时间状语连用：
Before, ever, never, already, and , yet. already 用于肯定句，yet 用于疑问句和否定句。
Venus and Serena have played each other before.(重要的事他们过去进行了比赛，但是何时比赛并不重要—现在完成时)
Venus and Serena have played each other in June 1999.( 我们知道此事发生的确切时间—一般过去时)
五、The passive 被动语态
在下列情况下使用被动语态：
1、不知道耶不需要知道谁做的这件事。
2、动作的执行者“显而易见”
3、动作本身比动作执行者更重要或不想指出谁做的这件事。
4、在书面语特别是在科技报告、报刊文章中被动语态比主动语态更正式。
Form：
Tense时态 form 形式 +past
一般现在时 am/is/are +past participle 过去分词
现在进行时 am/is/are being +pp
现在完成时 have/has been +pp
一般过去时 was/were +pp
过去进行时 was/were being +pp
六、have to/not have to, can/can’t, ought to/ought not to uses 用法：
have to 用来表示义务责任，You have to pass your test before you can drive.
Don’t have to 表达不必：We don’t have to wear uniforms at our school.
Can 用来表示允许或请求许可或者表示某事可能发生。
You can buy CDs at the market.
Can’t 表示禁止或不可能：You can’t go out tonight.
Ought to 表示应该做某事。You ought to visit your grandparents this weekend.
Ought not to 表示不应该做某事You ought not to walk alone at night.
Form 形式
can/can’t, have to/not have to 及ought to/ought not to 后用动词原形。
现在完成时，一般现在时，一般过去时
很多语言都有现在完成时态，因此常将它和一般现在时混淆，在英语中，用现在完成时描述发生在过去但对现在又影响的事件。如果涉及到过去某时间，则要用一般过去时。
如果过去事件的确切时间或日期不重要，也可以用现在完成时。

必修二
一、will 和be going to 表示推测揣想
1、Will+动词原形表示依据直觉知识经验等做出的揣测。
二、first conditional 真实条件句
A表示依据其他将来事件将来有可能发生的事件。
If the rain stops, the match will begin.
句型是：
if clause main clause
if +present simple will/won’t +infinitive/without to
也可能用其他句型，特别是使用情态动词时：
If you have time, we can go for a walk this evening.
B建议或命令某人做某事，提出建议或请求：
If you feel sleepy, go to bed.
句型是
If clause main clause
If +present simple imperative(祈使句)
三.second conditional 虚拟条件句
A虚拟条件句（1）表示想象的将来不可能发生的事
If I become an MP, I’d fight for animals rights.
2)现在不可能存在的状态
If I lived closer to school, I wouldn’t have to get up so early.
句型是
If clause main clause
If +past simple would /could /might +infinitive/without to
虚拟语气用法详解
英语中的语气分为陈述语气、祈使语气、虚拟语气三类。在表示虚假的、与事实相反的或难以实现的情况时用虚拟语气，表示主观愿望或某种强烈情感时，也用虚拟语气。即当一个人说话时欲强调其所说的话是基于自己的主观想法，愿望，假想，猜测，怀疑或建议，而不是根据客观实际，就用虚拟语气
一、条件句中的虚拟语气
1.条件句中虚拟语气的形式
从句中提出一种与客观现实不相符或根本不可能存在的条件，主句会产生的一种不可能获得的结果。条件句中的虚拟语气根据不同的时间有三种不同的形式。
时间
从句谓语形式
 主句谓语形式
将来
动词过去式(be用were)should + 动词原形were to + 动词原形
 would / should / might / could + 动词原形
现在
动词过去式(be 用 were)
would / should / might / could + 动词原形
过去
had +动词过去分词
would / should / might / could have + 动词过去分词

2.条件中的虚拟语气的举例
(1) 将来时的条件句中的虚拟语气。如：
If he should go to Qing Hua University, he would make full use of his time.如果他要上清华大学的话，他就会充分利用他的时间了。
If he were to come here, he would tell us about it.如果他要来的话，他会通知我们一声。
(2) 现在时的条件句中的虚拟语气。如：
If he were free, he would help us.要是他有空的话，它会帮助我们的。
If he studied at this school, he would know you well.如果他在这所学校学习的话，它会对你很熟悉。
(3) 过去时的条件句中的虚拟语气。如：
If I had seen the film, I would have told you about it.我如果看过这场电影，我会把电影内容告诉你了。
If I had got there earlier, I would have met Mr.Li.如果我早点到那儿，我就会会到了李先生。
3.运用条件句中的虚拟语气时，须注意的几个问题
(1) 当从句的主语为第三人称单数时，谓语动词若是系动词be时，可用was代替were。但在倒装虚拟结构及if I were you, as it were中，只能用were。如：
Were I ten years younger, I would study abroad.要是我还年轻十岁的话，我会去国外学习。
If I were you, I would try my best to grasp the chance.要是我是你的话，我要尽力抓住这次机会。
(2) 有时，虚拟条件句中，主、从句的动作若不是同时发生时，须区别对待。
①从句的动作与过去事实相反，而主句的动作与现在或现在正在发生的事实不符。如：
If I had worked hard at school, I would be an engineer, too.如果我在学校学习刻苦的话，我现在也会使工程师了
If they had informed us, we would not come here now.如果他们通知过我们的话，我们现在就不会来这里了。
②从句的动作与现在事实相反，而主句的动作与过去事实不符。如：
If he were free today, we would have sent him to Beijing.如果他今天有空的话，我们会已经派他去北京了。
If he knew her, he would have greeted her.要是他认识她的话，他肯定会去问候她了。
③从句的动作与过去发生的情况相反，而主句的动作与现在正在发生的情况相反。如：
If it had not been raining too much, the crops would be growing much better.如果天不下太多的雨的话，庄家会长得更好。
If he had been working hard, he would be working in the office now.要是他工作一直努力的话，他现在已进了办公室了。
(3) 当虚拟条件句的谓语动词含有were, should, had时，if可省略，而将were, should, had等词置于句首。如：
Should he agree to go there, we would send him there.要是他答应去的话，我们就派他去。
Were she here, she would agree with us.如果她在这儿的话，她会同意我们的。
Had he learnt about computers, we would have hired him to work here.如果她懂一些电脑知识的话，我们会已经聘用他来这里工作了。
(4) 有时，句子没有直接给出假设情况的条件，而须通过上下文或其他方式来判断。如：
I would have come to see you, but I was too busy.我本该来看你了，然而我太忙了。
But for his help, we would be working now.要不是他的帮助，我们还会在工作呢。
Without your instruction, I would not have made such great progress.要是没有你的指导，我不会取得如此大的进步。
(5) 有时，虚拟条件句中，主、从句可以省略其中的一个，来表示说话人的一种强烈的感情。
①省略从句
He would have finished it.他本该完成了。
You could have passed this exam.你应该会通过这次考试了。
②省略主句
If I were at home now.要是我现在在家里该多好啊。
If only I had got it.要是我得到它了该多好啊。
二、其他状语从句的虚拟语气
1.目的状语从句中的虚拟语气
(1) 在for fear that, in case, lest引导的目的状语从句中，若用虚拟语气时，从句谓语为： should + 动词原形。并且 should不能省略
She examined the door again for fear that a thief should come in.她又把门检查了一遍，以防盗贼的进入。
He started out earlier lest he should be late.他很早就出发了以防迟到。
(2) 在so that, in order that所引导的目的状语从句中，从句中的谓语为： can / may / could / might / will / would / should + 动词原形。如(from www.yygrammar.com)：
He goes closer to the speaker so that he can hear him clearer.他走近说话的人以便能挺得更清楚。
He read the letter carefully in order that he should not miss a word.他把信读得很仔细以便不漏掉一个单词。
2.让步状语从句中的虚拟语气
(1) 在even if, even though 所引导的让步状语从句中，可用虚拟语气，主句、从句的结构与if所引导的条件从句结构相同。如：
Even if he were here himself, he should not know what to do.即是他亲自来也不知该怎么办。
Nobody could save him even though Hua Tuo should come here.及时华佗再世也就不了他。
(2) 在whatever， whichever，whenever，whoever, wherever，however, no matter wh-word 等引导的让步状语从句中，从句虚拟语气结构为：
① may +动词原形(指现在或将来)。如：
We will finish it on time no matter what / whatever may happen.不管发生什么事，我们都要按时完成。
We will find him wherever / no matter where he may be.无论他在哪里，我们都要找到他。
I will wait for him no matter how late he may come.不管他来的多么晚，我都会等他。
② may +完成式(指过去) ，主句结构不限。如：
You mustn’t be proud whatever / no matter what great progress you may have made.不管你取得了多么大的进步，你也不能骄傲。
We must respect him no matter what / whatever mistakes he may have made.不管他翻过什么错误，我们必须尊敬他。
(3) 在though, although等引导的让步状语从句中，从句虚拟语气结构为 should +动词原形，主句结构不限。如：
Although / Though he should often be late, he is a good student.尽管他经常迟到，他还是个好学生。
Although / Though he should be secretary, he must obey the rules.尽管他是书记，他也必须遵守规定。
3.方式状语从句中的虚拟语气
as if, as though引导的方式状语从句常用虚拟语气。虚拟语气的结构为：
表示所发生的时间
虚拟语气结构
发生在主句动作之前
had + 过去分词
与主句动作同时发生
过去时(be 用were )
发生在主句动作之后
would / could / might / should+原形动词

例如：
They began to talk warmly as if they had known each other for long.他们开始热烈的谈论起来就好像他们已相互认识很久了。
He coughed twice as if someone should come.他咳嗽两声就好像有人要来了。
4.原因状语从句中的虚拟语气
amazed, angry, annoyed, astonished, disappointed, frightened, happy, pleased, proud, sorry, surprised, upset等后面的状语从句中常用虚拟语气。其虚拟语气的结构为：
① should + 原形动词(指现在或将来)。如：
He was angry that you should call him by name.他很生气，你竟然对他直呼其名。
I was astonished that he should not answer such an easy question.我很惊讶他竟答不出如此简单的问题。
② should + 完成式, 指过去。如：
I’m very sorry that you should have failed the exam.我很遗憾，你这次考试竟然失败了。
I was very surprised that Father should have known what I did yesterday.我很吃惊，父亲竟指导我昨天所作的事情。
三、宾语从句中的虚拟语气
1．英语中，如：advise, ask, demand, desire, decide, insist(坚决要求) , order, propose, request, suggest(建议) 表示请求、要求、命令或建议等意义的动词所接的宾语从句一般用虚拟语气，起虚拟语气的结构为：(should) + 原形动词。如：
The teacher advised that we should make good use of every minute here.老师劝我们要好好地利用在这儿的每一分钟。
The Party asked that we should serve the people with our heart and soul.党要求我们要全心全意地为人民服务。
但是，当insist的意思为：坚决认为，坚持说；suggest的意思为：表明，暗含，暗示等时，宾语从句一般不用虚拟语气。如：
Tom insisted that he hadn’t stolen the watch.汤姆坚持说他没有偷那块手表。
His smile suggested that he had succeeded in this exam.他的微笑表明他在考试中成功了。
2.believe, expect, suspect, think, imagine等动词的否定句或疑问句中的宾语从句常用虚拟语气。其虚拟语气的结构为： should + 原形动词。如：
Can you believe that he should kill a tiger? 你能相信他竟杀死了一只老虎？
Can you imagine that he should take the first place in the long jump contest? 你能想象得到他在跳远比赛中竟获得了第一名？
3.英语中，wish之后的宾语从句，表示一种没有实现或根本不可能实现的愿望，常用虚拟语气。其虚拟语气的结构为
表示所发生的时间
虚拟语气结构
发生在主句动作之前
(1)had + 过去分词；(2)would / could / might / should + have + 过去分词
与主句动作同时发生
过去时(be 用were )
发生在主句动作之后
would / could / might / should + 原形动词

例如：
I wish I learnt English well.我希望我已学好了英语。
I wish I had been there with them last week.我希望上周跟他们一起在那儿。
He wishes we could go and play games with him.他希望我们能去跟他做游戏。
4.英语中，would rather, had rather, would sooner等之后的宾语从句常表示与客观事实不相符的一种愿望，故使用虚拟语气。起虚拟语气的结构为：
表示所发生的时间
虚拟语气结构
过去
had + 过去分词；
现在
过去时(be 用were )
将来
过去时(be 用were )

例如：
I’d rather you had seen the film yesterday.我倒想你昨天看过了这场电影。
I’d rather you were here now.我倒想你现在在这儿。
We’d rather you went here tomorrow.我么倒想你明天去那儿。
四、主语从句中的虚拟语气
在表达惊异、惋惜、遗憾、理应如此等意义的主语从句中常使用虚拟语气，其虚拟语其的结构为： should + 动词原形，主句中的谓语动词形式不限。
句型：
(1) It is admirable / dreadful / extraordinary / odd / remarkable / sad / advisable / annoying / disappointing / surprising / upsetting / frightening / better / best / curious / desirable / important / strange / peculiar / proper / necessary / natural …that…
(2) It is a pity / a shame / no wonder….that…
(3) It is suggested / requested / desired / proposed /….that …
(4) It worries me that…
如：
It is important that we should do well in our lessons first.我们先把功课学好很重要。
It is strange that he should not come.很奇怪，他竟没有来。
It is a pity that we should not meet last night.真遗憾我们昨天晚上没有见过面。
It worries me that we should be blamed for that.我们竟要受责备真让人烦恼。
五、表语从句及同位语从句中虚拟语气
英语中，表示请求、要求、命令、建议等名词advice, desire, decision, idea, instruction, order, plan, proposal, recommendation, request, requirement, suggestion, wish充当句子的主语而后面接表语从句或它们后面接同位语时，表语从表面上看几屗及同位语从句都须用虚拟语气。其虚拟语气的结构为：(should) + 动词原形。如：
We followed his advice that we should ask our teacher for help.我们接受了他的建议：我们应该请求老师的帮助(from www.yygrammar.com)。
He told us his idea that he should go to university.他告诉了我们他的想法：他想上大学。
His suggestion is that we should do our work more carefully.他的建议就是我们的工作要更细心些。
Their plan is that they should build a new factory in their hometown.他们的计划就是在家乡建一座新工厂。
六、定语从句中的虚拟语气
英语中，表示：“早该做某事了”时，定语从句中的谓语动词须用虚拟语气，其虚拟语气的结构为：It is (high / about) time that + 主语+ 动词的过去式/ should + 动词原形。如：
It is time that I went to pick up my daughter at school.我该去学校接我的女儿了。
It is high time you should go to work.你早该上班了。
七.简单句中的虚拟语气
1.说话时，为了表示客气、谦虚、委婉而有礼貌，言语常使用虚拟语气。其虚拟语气的结构形式常为：would / could / might / should + 原形动词。如：
Would you mind my shutting the door? 我把门关起来你介意吗？
You should always learn this lesson by heart.你要把这个教训牢记于心。
I should agree with you.我应该同意你的观点。
2.表示“祝愿”时，常用“may + 主语 + 动词原形 + 其他”。如：
May you have a good journey! 祝你一路顺风。
May your youth last for ever! 祝你青春永驻。
3.表示强烈的“愿望”、“祝愿”时，常用动词原形。如：
Long live the Communist Party of China.中国共产党万岁。
God bless us.上帝保佑。
4.习惯表达中常用的虚拟语气。
(1) 提出请求或邀请。如：
Would you like to have a talk with us this evening? 今天晚上来跟我们聊天好吗？
Could I use your bike now? 我可以用一下你的单车吗？
(2) 陈述自己的观点或看法。如：
I should glad to meet you.见到你我会很高兴。
I would try my best to help you.我会尽力帮助你。
(3) 提出劝告或建议。如：
You’d better ask your father first.你最好先问一问你的父亲。
You should make a full investigation of it first.你应该先全面调查一番。
(4) 提出问题。如：
Do you think he could get here on time? 你认为他能按时来吗？
Do you expect he would tell us the truth? 你期望他会告诉我们真相吗？
(5) 表示对过去情况的责备时，常用虚拟语气。其虚拟语气的结构为：“情态动词 + have + 过去分词”。如You should have got here earlier.你应该早就到这里了。
You should have returned it to him.你应该把他还给他了。
四、sudden decision, time clause referring to the future adverbial clause.突然决定，表示将来的时间状语；状语从句；让步状语从句。
说话瞬间突然做出决定，用will +动词原形表示。
表示将来的时间状语从句，在when, as soon as, after, before 引导的时间状语从句中用一般现在时表将来。
Adverbial clause of concession 让步状语从句
Although和though可以引导让步状语从句
Although she doesn’t enjoy her job, she works hard..
五、Adverbial clause （2）cause, result and purpose
状语从句二原因、结果、目的状语从句
1.as, since, because 等连词可以引导原因状语从句
As I haven’t studied, I won’t pass this exam
2.so that 可以引导目的状语从句
He is studying hard so that he can become a doctor.
3.so …that 或such+(an) +名词+that 可引导结果状语从句。
It is so cold that the lake has frozen over.
4.在many, much, few, little 前用so 而不用such.
Famous film stars earn so much money nowadays that they can choose who to work for.
用so lovely a boy 可代替such a lovely boy.
六、prepositions of time, place and movement 表示时间，地点和动作的介词
Time :时间after lunch, at midnight, at night, at the movement, before Christmas, during the break in 1999, in April, in the morning, on Sunday, on 1st April.
Place 地点at home /the bank /the seaside /above the lake/ below the clouds, behind the tree, between the bank and the park., in Bake street, in the box, in the picture, on the table/bus/first floor, under the bridge, over the table.
Movement 动作: across the park\, along the river, in to the building, to/from Warsaw
七、Relative Clause 定语从句1
定语从句可用来修饰，限定正在谈论的人或物
Students who go to this school
没有定语从句就不知道所谈的和人或何物。
在定语从句中门要用下列关系代词：
Who （有时用that ）用来指人，that用来指代动物。
Which (that)用来指代物地点等
The park that is in the center of the town has beautiful big trees.
Where 用来指代位置和地点，whose用来表示所属关系。
若关系代词which，that或who在定语从句中作宾语，而不做主语时， 可以省略。
The girl (who) you meet is Peter’s sister.
八、language problem-solving ,a, an ,the
在下列情况下用a/an
1， 所谈论的事那个人或物并不重要时
2），所谈论的是一类人或物时，3，第一次谈论某人或物时，
2，单词首字母为辅音前用a ,而首字母为元音或以元音发音的名词前用an
3, 在下列情况下用the
1）所谈论的人或物是读者或听者已知晓的且易于辨认的。
2）当所谈论的人或物时世界上独一无二的
用或不用冠词的短语
英语有许多短语中冠词的使用很难解释清楚，所以需要牢记
No article：零冠词at home, at school, go to work, go to bed, have breakfast /lunch, in hospital,
和the 连用的短语：at the station, to the cinema, play the piano, in the morning/ evening .
和a 连用的短语：have a bath /shower, have a rest, have a cake, have a drink.
在国家和城镇名称前不用the 但在河流，海洋和山脉名称前要用the。

必修三
一、Relative Clause with where, when and why, where, when, why 引导的定语从句
关系副词where, when 引导的定语从句可提供时间和地点的信息，在reason后可用why 引导的定语从句。
介词+ which /whom 引导的定语从句
关系代词可做介词的宾语，通常在which和whom前加介词即介词+which/whom 结构
This is the book for which he is looking.
可以根据定语从句所修饰的名词或代词来选介词，也可以依据从句的相关动词来选用。但在日常英语中，通常是吧介词放在从句句末，省略关系代词which 和whom
The train(which /that) I’m travelling on is for Shanghai.
二、形容词和副词的比较
More and more 越来越…
Less /the least 不如/最不…
The …the …越…就越… The less I worried, the better I worked.
三、修饰形容词比较级
Much, a lot, slightly, a little, almost, a bit, far, even, still, twice/ three times …more than/twice as much/many as/twice the +n +of …比…多/是… 的两倍/三倍。
四、状态或动作动词
英语中动词分为两类：动作动词和状态动词。动作动词描述动作，可用于一般时态和进行时态；状态动词描述状态，一般不用于进行时态。
状态动词
表达思维活动的动词：admit, believe, know, mean, prefer, realize, remember, think, understand, want,
表达情感的动词：adore，care, like, dislike, love, hate, hope
表达拥有和存在的动词：appear, be, belong, contain, have, include, need, seem, possess, own.
感官动词feel, hear, look, see, smell, sound, taste,有些状态动词也可以表示动作，在此意义上，这些动词可用于现在时。 How are you feeling?
感官动词后用形容词修饰二不用副词。
The roses look and smell beautiful.
四、定语从句：defining and non-defining 限制性和非限制性定语从句
Ⅰ.概念：
(1) 定语从句：在主从复合句中用作定语的从句叫定语从句。定语从句一般紧接在先行词(antecedent)后面。
(2) 先行词：被定语从句修饰的成份。先行词可以为一个词，短语，或整个主句。
(3) 引导定语从句的词叫关系词，分为关系代词和关系副词。
关系词的作用：
1) 引导定语从句，连接主句和从句，相当于一个连词；
2) 必在从句中作某个句子成份（可以做主语，宾语，表语，定语，状语）
常用的关系代词: that、which、who、whom、whose、as 、but (文语, 置于否定词之后=that/who…not…, "没有……不……", 在从句中作主语，宾语)
常用的关系副词（在从句中只作状语）: when、why、where
The student who answered the question was John.
I know the reason why he was so angry.
The boy (whom) you are talking to is my brother.
I'd like a room whose window looks out over the sea.
定语从句三步：
第一找出先行词；
第二看先行词在定语从句中的语法功能（做主语、宾语或状语）；
第三选择合适的关系词。
Ⅱ.几个关系代词的基本用法：
●that: 可指人或物；在定语从句中作主语，宾语，表语。(指人时，相当于who或 whom；指物时，相当于which)(一般不用于非限制性定语从句; 不可置于介词后作宾语) 如：
1.A letter that/which is written in pencil is difficult to read.(主语)
2.Do you know the gentleman that/who spoke just now?
3.You can take anything ( that) you like.（宾语）
4.What is the question (that/which) they are talking about?
5.Here is the man ( who/whom/that ) you want to see.
6.She's no longer the girl ( that) she used to be before.（表语）
7.Our hometown is no longer the one (that) it used to be.
= Our hometown is not the same as it used to be.
= Our hometown is different from what it used to be。
= Our hometown is not what it used to be.
●which: 指物；在定语从句中作主语，宾语，表语，定语。如：
1.The book which/that was on the desk was bought by my father.（主语）
2.The book (which/that) I bought yesterday is very interesting.（宾语）
3.The factory in which his father works is far from here.
4.He was proud, which his brother never was.（表语）
5.Tom spent four years in college, during which time he learned French.（定语）
6.He may be late, in which case we ought to wait for him.
●who, whom, whose:
who: 主格, 在从句中作主语，在口语或非正式用法中作宾语; 只可指人
whom: 宾格，在从句中作宾语; 只可指人
whose: 属格，在从句中作定语，可指人也可指物。
I like the students who/that work hard.（主语）
All who heard the story were amazed.(代词如he, they, any, those, all, one等后多用who.)
Chaplin, for whom life had once been very hard, was a success as an actor. （宾语）
He's a man from whom we should learn.
= He's a man (whom/who/that) we should learn from.
比较：He is the student whom you think to be worthy of your praise.
He is the student who you think is worth praising.
A child whose parents are dead is called an orphan.（指人）
I'd like a room whose window faces south.（指物）
=I'd like a room of which the window faces south.
=I'd like a room the window of which faces south.
There is a teapot shaped like a Chinese duck, out of whose mouth tea is supposed to come
关系代词作介词宾语:
关系代词在定语从句中用作介词宾语时, 介词可放于从句之首, 也可放于从句之末.但以放于句首较为正式.（介词前置，必须注意不影响动词词组的含义。关系代词who 和 that 用作介词宾语时, 介词必须放在句末.）
This is the book for which you asked.
=This is the book (that/which) you asked for.
Do you know the person with whom I shook hands？= Do you know the person (whom/who/that) I shook hands with?
The beginning of agriculture was a big step in human progress with which nothing could compare until our information age.
In the dark street, there wasn't a single person to whom she could turn for help.
Is this the factory to which you paid a visit last week?
Is this factory the one to which you paid a visit last week?
This is the girl whom they are looking after.(介词after与look构成固定词组，不可前置。look at, look for, look after, take care of等)
●as 的用法:(as 引导定语从句, 在定语从句中作主语、宾语、表语)
①如为限制性的，多用于the same …as ; the same as；such …as …; as many/much as；so …as等结构中。如：
※I have the same book as you (have).我有一本和你的一样的书。
Her attitude to him was quite the same as it had always been.(关系代词as和指示代词same连用, 在从句中用作表语, 先行词是same.)
.---Why didn't you mention that in face of the police just now?
--- I thought it was such a minor detail as was hardly worth mentioning.
We will only discuss such problems as have something to do with our own interests.
Don't do such things as you are not sure about.
There is no such place as you dream of in all this world.
比较：I live in the same house that he used to live in.
I'm wearing the same shirt as you wore yesterday.
比较：Here is so big a stone as no one can lift.（定语从句）
Here is so big a stone that no one can lift it.（结果状语从句）
②如为非限制性的，多单独引导一个定语从句，这种定语从句可置于句首，句中或句尾，译为"正如，这一点"。（动词常为know, see, expect, point out, etc.）
As we all know, smoking is harmful to one's health .(as 作宾语)
=As is known to all, smoking is harmful to one's health .（as 作主语）
=It's known to all that smoking is harmful to one's health .
=Smoking is harmful to one's health , as we all know .（as 作宾语）
=Smoking, as we all know, is harmful to one' health.
He was a foreigner, as I knew from his accent. (宾语, 先行词是前面整个句子)
Ⅲ.关系副词引导的定语从句:
●When 指时间，在定语从句中作时间状语。其先行词是表时间的名词（如：time, day, week, tear, month, etc.）
He came last night when I was out.
We will put off the picnic until next week, when the weather would be better.
注意：先行词为"时间名词"，可用when引导定语从句，when在定语从句中作状语；还可以用which或that 引导，which或that在从句中作主语或宾语。
比较: I still remember the day when /on which my brother joined the army.（作状语）
Next month, when you will be in your hometown, is just around the corner.
I still remember the days which/that we spent together.（作宾语）
Next winter which/that you'll spend in Harbin, I'm sure, will be exciting.
I shall never forget the day when Shen Zhou Ⅴ was launched, which has a great effect on my life.
There are occasions when joking is not permissible.
●Where 指地点，在定语从句中作地点状语。其先行词是表示地点的名词，如：place, school, factory, room, etc.
This is the place where I was born.
I live in the room where /in which he used to live.
注意：先行词是"地点名词"，定语从句可用where引导，还可用which或that引导，which/that 在从句中作主语或宾语。
比较: ※This is the factory where /in which he worked last year.（作状语）
The treatment will continue until the patient reaches the point where he can walk correctly and safely.
I think you have got to the point where a change is needed, or you would fail.
Government reports, legal papers and most business letters are the main situations where English is used.
He's got himself into a dangerous situation where he's likely to lose control of the plane.
The small mountain village where we spent our holiday last month lies in what /the place which is now part of Hubei.
This is the park which/that they visited last year.（作宾语）
Not having been there before, he simply had no idea about the place, which everyone says is worth visiting.
●Why 指原因，在定语从句中作原因状语。先行词为reason 时，可用for which指代；当关系词在从句中作主语或宾语时，则用which或that 引导。如：
The reason why / for which / (that) he didn't attend the meeting was that he was ill.
I don't believe the reason (that/which) he gave me.（作宾语）
Have you asked him the reason that may explain his success? （作主语）
Ex.) He was late .That's because he got up late.
.He got up late.That's why he was late.(表语从句)
(the reason) why/for which he was late.(定语从句)
当先行词为way时，定语从句常用that, in which,或how引导，that常可以省略。
way后的定语从句 的引导词不用时较多。但如果关系词在句中作主语或宾语
时，则用which或that 引导。如:
This is the way (that) /in which I do such things.
比较: Please do the experiment in the way （that/which）I have shown you.
Ⅳ.限制性定语从句与非限制性定语从句的区别：
1.形式上，非限制性定语从句往往用逗号隔开。
2.语法上，非限制性定语从句一般不用that.
3.语义上，限制性定语从句与先行词关系紧密，起限定作用，如果去掉了这个定语从句，整个句子就不完整或者会改变意思；而非限制性定语从句与先行词关系不是很紧密，对先行词起补充说明或描述的作用。
This is the book I like best. 这就是我最喜欢的那本书。
Beijing, which has been China's capital for more than 800 years , is rich in cultural and historic relics.北京是中国八百年之久的古都，它有着丰富的文化和历史遗产。
4.翻译时，限制性定语从句可译为一句（较短的一般译为"的"字结构）；而非限制性定语从句可译为两句。（见上句翻译）
比较: He has a sister, who is a musician.
He has a sister who is a musician.
引导非限制性定语从句的关系代词，指人时用who, whom, whose , 指物时用which , whose; 关系副词when，where, why, etc.
1.He studied hard at school when he was young, which leads to his success in his later life.
2.Tom's father, who arrived just now, is a famous scientist.
3.They set up a separate state of their own, where they would be free to keep Negroes as slaves.
4.He was proud, which his brother never was.
Ⅴ.几个易混淆的关系代词的比较:
●that & which:
在定语从句中，which 和that 在指代事物时，一般可以互换使用，但并非在任何情况下都是这样，这里介绍宜用that, 而不宜用which 的情况.
①先行词为不定代词,all,much,something,everything,anything,nothing,none,the one等,
1.We should do all that is useful to the people .
2.There's nothing that can be said about it .
3.Do you mean the one that was bought yesterday?
②先行词被only, any, few, little, no, just, very, one of等词修饰时。
1.The only thing that we could do was to wait.
2.That's the very word that is wrongly used.
The last place (that) we visited was the chemical works.
You can take any (=whichever) seat that is free.
I hope the little that I can will be of some help to them.
比较 *This is one of the best novels that were published last year.
*This is the only one of the best novels that was published last year.
③先行词是序数词时或被序数词修饰时。
1.When we talk about Wuxi, the first that comes into mind is Tai Lake.
2.This is the third film that has been shown in our school this term.
④先行词是最高级或被最高级修饰时。
1.This is the best that can be done now.
2.The most important thing that should be done right now is how to stop him from going on.
⑤先行词既有人又有物，用which和who都不适合，这时宜用that.如：
1.The writer and his novel that you have just talked about is really well known .
2.The rider and his bike that had run over an old woman were held up by the police.
⑥被修饰词为数词时.
1.Yesterday I caught two fish and put them in a basin of water .Now you can see the two that are still alive .
⑦如果有两个从句，其中一个关系代词已用which ,另一个关系代词宜用that，以避免语言的单调或重复。
Edison built up a factory which produced things that had never been seen before.
⑧疑问词是who或which，关系代词宜用that，以避免重复。
1.Which is the book that you like best?
2.Who is the man that is standing at the gate?
⑨主句是There be 结构，修饰其主句的定语从句宜用that 作关系代词.如：
1.There is still a seat in the corner that is still free.
⑩被修饰成分为表语时，或者关系代词本身是定语从句的表语时,该关系代词宜用that .
1.That's a good book that will help you a lot.
2.My home village is no longer the place ( that ) it used to be .
定语从句中宜用which而不宜用that 的情况:
①当关系代词的前面有介词时.
1.A zoo is a park in which many kinds of animals are kept for exhibition.
2.Is this the room in which Mr.White lives?
②在非限制性定语从句中.
1.Crusoe's dog, which was are now very old, became ill and died .
2.More and more people are beginning to learn English, which is becoming very popular in our country.(which指代主句)
③在一个句子中有两个定语从句，其中一个定语从句的关系代词用了that, 另一个宜用which .
1.Let me show you the novel，that I borrowed from the library which was newly open to us.
2.At the station I bought some magazines that might help me to pass the time on the train and which I could pass on to others when I finished them.
④当关系代词后面带有插入语时.
1.Here's the English grammar which, as I have told you, will help improve your English.
⑤先行词本身是that, 宜用which .
What's that which she is looking at?
⑥先行词是those+复数名词.
A shop should keep a stock of those goods which sell best.
(B) who & that:
who 和 that 指代人时，有些情况宜用who, 而不宜用that
①先行词为anyone, anybody, those, all, one, ones, they, he, people时.如：
1.The person I want to learn from is the one who studies hard and works well.
2.Anyone who (=Whoever) failed to come to the meeting yesterday must give his reason .
3.Those who are not fit for their work should leave office at once
4.I don't like the ones (= those ) who talk big.
5.Persons who are quarrelsome are despised.
②在There be 结构中，修饰主语的定语从句宜用关系代词who 指代人.如：
1.There is a gentleman who wants to see you .
2.There are several students in our class who are still not sure about the use of attributive clauses.
③当先行词有较长的后置定语时.如：
1.I met a foreigner in the park yesterday afternoon who could speak Chinese very well.
④一个句子中带有两个定语从句，其中一个定语从句的关系代词是that ,另一个则宜用who, 以免重复.如：
1.The student that was praised at yesterday's meeting is the monitor who is very modest and works very hard .
●as & which:
as & which 引导非限制性定语从句的区别：
①位置的不同：
which 引导的定语从句只置于所限制的 句子后；as 位置较灵活，也就是说as可置于所限制的句子前面；插在句子中或放在句子后。如：
1.He was late again, which made his teacher very angry.
2.Jack, as you know, is an honest man.或Jack is an honest man , as you know.
或As you know, Jack is an honest man.
②先行词的不同：
as引导非限制性定语从句时，其先行词多为一个句子；
which引导非限制性定语从句时，其先行词可以是一个词，一个短语或一个句子。
He was proud, which his brother never was.（先行词是一个词）
She was very patient towards the children, which her husband seldom was.
He was proud, which I dislike very much.（先行词是一个句子）
He is an honest man, as is known to all.
He was a foreigner, as I know from his accent.
③as 一般译为"正如""就像"，"这一点"
as we all know；as you know; as is known to all; as you see; as we can see; as has been expected; as we have imagined.
五、现在完成进行时present perfect continuous
用法：1.过去开始的反复或正在进行的尚未完成的动作
I’ve been going everywhere by bike for the last two months.
2.最近的过去开始的对现在又影响的动作。
He ‘s been doing his science project all night.(that’s why he’s so sleepy, now.)
Form:形式
Subject + have /has +been + -ing
You’ve been studying very hard.
六、Present perfect and present perfect continuous
1.我们用现在完成时谈论一个完成的动作，用现在完成进行时谈论未完成的动作。
2.现在完成时关注动作结果，尤其谈到数字或数量时，现在完成进行时关注动作本身，特别是解释动作可见的结果时。
He has run three times
He has been running for an hour.
七、现在完成时和时间状语
现在完成时使用下列时间状语：.
1.before,ever, never, seldom, sometimes often, usually, just, 这些副词一般放在has /have 之后，有时放在句末。
2.already 用在陈述句中（一般在have 之后）yet 用在疑问句和否定句中（常放在句末）
3.for, since, all my life
For 说明动作的时间长度，since说明动作的起点。
八、too 加形容词，not + 形容词 + enough
Too + 形容词表示某物超过我们所需。标识语too + 形容词相反的意思用not + 形容词 + enough结构。
九、形容词的顺序
Quality –size/age/shape-color-origin-made of-type/usage-noun
Beautiful long brown hair
Metal half-moon glasses
Old French car
10、Articles 冠词 a/an
1，冠词a/an用在单数可数名词前，泛指某人某事，并把该人该事作为一群/一种的例子时。
2， 第一次谈论某事时用冠词a/an。
The，定冠词
1，当别人知道我们谈论的那个人那件事，并能容易地判定该人，该事时，
The car is dirty.
2,谈论世上独一无二的事物。
3，河流，海洋，山脉和群岛名称前，the Nile.
4,单数名词表达整个种类时，The whale is the biggest mammal.
5,形容词谈论享有同一特征的群体时，
No article
1，在表示泛指的复数名词和不可数名词前
2，在洲，城镇， 湖泊，单座山脉，单个岛屿和国家名称前,,
3，机场，车站，街道的名称前
4，在复数形式的国名和国名中含有一个普通名词的国家名称前要加the.